Microeconomic Impact of AIDS in Africa

The world has been greatly affected by the HIV/AIDS pandemic indiscriminately although some parts have proved to be more vulnerable than others. It has ravaged the people since the 1980’s when it was first discovered. Despite this, it has been established that more than two thirds o those who are infected by the scourge are found in Africa and especially in the sub-Sahara part of Africa. This is in spite of the fact that this area consists of only 10% of the population in the world. This then means that a very big percentage of those in Africa are suffering from HIV/AIDS. It is sad to realize that the majority of those who are infected and affected by the disease are those in the working age bracket. This then affects all aspects of life including social, cultural, and economic. In all these aspects, there has been a change towards the negative. Those who are not infected are affected by having someone close to them suffering from the disease. In almost every household, there is someone suffering from it. It affects the economy by reducing the laborer force and at the same time increasing costs. This affects the industries, households and enterprises. It also affects the government because of reduced taxes yet the expenditure has been increased on those who are in need of health care. In these countries, there was already an economic problem before the advent of the disease and this has been escalated by the impact of the disease. It leads to the inability of these economies to advance since most of the resources are channeled towards efforts of curbing the disease (Chaminuka P., Anim F., Debustus L. K. & Nqangweni S. 2-8). The mainstay of most of the African countries is agriculture. The majority of people practice small-scale agriculture and it is among the most affected sectors in the continent. This is because resources are withdrawn from farming and directed to the healthcare of the ailing individuals. This occurs in various ways as will be explained in this paper. First, the labor resource is reduced greatly because those who are working in the farms are the same ones who get sick. This then leads to lack of labor for the farms and hence the productivity of these farms is greatly reduced. Furthermore, the money that can be used to hire laborers is already being used in the healthcare of the sick person (http://www.avert.org). Secondly, the monetary capital required in the advancement of farming is already being used by the family in the purchasing of drugs and general health care of the sick person. This then means that the implements necessary for the improvement and increase of productivity are not purchased. It is also affected by the loss of income earners either through death or to the ravages of the disease. If the person who is required to infuse monetary capital to the farming business loses his or her job due to the disease, then it means that the household is by-passed by much technological advancement related to the agricultural field. When unable to purchase these technologies, productivity is low and hence the amount of income that can be earned from the farming is greatly reduced. Lastly, in order to deal with the situation brought about by the disease, children end up becoming the laborers in the farms. They do this because their parents may both be suffering from the disease, as is the case most of the times, and therefore unable to work in the fields. Since the children cannot be able to work as efficiently and effectively as the adults can, they end up producing for subsistence use only. This means that food insecurity is on the rise because not enough is being produced to support the countries demand for food. This ends up leading to a very acute shortage of food and the countries end up depending on food aid from other countries. Since agriculture as pointed out earlier is the mainstay of most economies, it means therefore means that even the economy is greatly affected (Chaminuka P., Anim F., Debustus L. K. & Nqangweni S. 2-8). In Africa, there is a high rate of illiteracy and this affects their ability to compete for work on both the local and the international level. This has always been so since the independence era of most countries such that most of the policies put in place were aimed at reducing the level of illiteracy that was there. Since most of these policies failed it means that the problem was still prevalent even before the onset of the disease. This problem was made even worse, by the presence of HIV/AIDS through the impact it has on the education sector. When the disease hits a family, there is need to use all the resources available in taking care of the patient and also in the funeral expenses, in case the person dies. The reduction in money for use in the house leads to a reduction in the previously experienced expenses. The most reduced expenses are spending on some of the basic needs that are deemed disposable. These basic needs usually include clothing and education. The money to cater for the school uniform and for school fees is used in health care of the patient and hence leads to low education and in the long run an increase in the rate of illiteracy (http://www.avert.org). Education is also affected when both parents die of the disease and this is very common. It then means that some or all of the children end up dropping out of school so as to take care of themselves and also the young ones. If the parents are still alive but suffering from the disease, the children, especially the female children, drop out of school so as to take care of the parents. The lack of education means that the majority of youngsters are only able to get menial manual jobs. They are unable to get technical jobs that need skills because they have not learned them in school. It ends up making the country look for expatriates to do the jobs that could have been done by local people if they had the skills. This impacts on the economy negatively because the expatriates demand for more money than what would have been paid to the locals if they were the ones employed in the same capacity. This ends up straining the resources available because the amount used in salaries for the expatriates reduces the profits that could have been made. In other words, the profits are not maximized. The low levels of education also lead to a lot of unemployment because the manual jobs can be done through the technologies introduced. The manual employees end up replaced by the machines increasing unemployment level. The high rate of unemployment leads to lack of consumption of goods and services because the people do not have money to spend (http://www.avert.org). The decrease in labor also affects the foreign direct investment. This is because the demand for labor becomes higher than the supply. This leads to an increase in wages and the necessity for the use of expatriates. The foreign direct investment is important in the improvement of the economy but the foreign investors can only be attracted if there is a chance of making profits. For the profits to be made, the resources required must be available at the minimum costs possible. Once labor, which is one of the resources, becomes too expensive to enable the company maximize its profits, the investors tend to shy away from the country. This means that the one of the various avenues through which the country can be able to improve its economy has been affected. The various companies that have been put up also make a lot of losses leading either to closure due to reduced profits or the company may not close down but the profits being made are affected. This is because of the increased costs caused by the diversion of the productive resources towards health care, funeral benefits and also the pension fund. This is brought about by the early retirement caused by the incapacitation of the ailing workers due to poor health. The skills are also reduced as an increased number of skilled workers succumb to the disease. This affects the company especially since resources have been used to train the workers and they may not have recovered the cost by the time the person retires or dies. Businesses are also affected in that there is low productivity by workers. This is because the disease brings about an increase in the rate or absenteeism. Once the workers are constantly absent due to the necessity to seek medical care, it then means that the work is not done well and this affects the amount of profit that the businesses make. Furthermore, with the effect that the disease has on individual households, it leads to a reduction in the demand for the goods and services that are provided. This leads to an increase in dead stock which in turn may lead to the closure of some businesses. The lack of good profits by businesses and companies affects the economy as a whole in that it affects the taxes that the government gets from the business sector. This leads to reduced revenue thus affecting the services that the government is able to provide to the citizens. This is combined with the increase in health care spending by the government. The government ends up having to borrow from both foreign and local lenders so as to be able to meet the targets of the budget that they have fixed in any given financial year. The result of the heavy borrowing is an increase in the rate of inflation. This affects each household because the money they have now purchases less than it would have before (http://www.avert.org). In the provision of health care, it has become very expensive for the individual households. This is caused by the fact that there is massive drainage of health care workers in most of these countries. There are too many people who are infected with the disease causing an increase in the workload of the healthcare workers. When this is combined with the low wages that they get, it leads to their immigrating to other areas where they can get more money for the services that they give. In order to maintain those who have been left in the service, there is need to increase their wages and this cost is pushed on to those who are seeking health care making it next to impossible for them to acquire it especially the HIV/AIDS patients. There is also a problem of having a large number of infected health care workers, this is because a major cause o death in the industry thus depleting the number of workers further. This combined with the other two factors are a cause of increase in the cost of attainment of healthcare. This affects households by reducing the amount of income that can be used for consumption thus affecting the economy. The hospital resources are also under strain because the disease is chronic yet the numbers of HIV/AIDS patients that are using the hospital’s resource are more than those who are suffering from other diseases. The death of income earners in the various households means that the children who are orphaned become dependants on other income earners. This is if they do not become the heads in their houses. The increase in dependants on the income earners leads to less income used for consumption. There are now more people who depend on the same income thus reducing the real income of the household. There is also the reduction of customers that a business can get because the same amount of money that was initially used by one household is now being used by two households. Also, the increase in amount of dependants on the few income earners who are now available leads to depletion of savings. Since the income earned cannot be enough to sustain the increased number of dependants, the income earner is forced to use up the saving that they had kept aside. Since savings and investments go hand-in-hand, it means that the rate of investment is also affected. There is less investment by households and also the various businesses because decreased savings causes an increase in the interest rate of borrowing. The decreased rate of investment affects employment. The income earners usually have to quit working because they have to take care of the ill. This especially affects the female income earners because they have to take care of the family. The female workers and students may end up becoming commercial sex workers which is a job description that is not taxed by the government. In other words, it means that the number of taxpayers has reduced yet the number of workers has increased. By becoming commercial sex workers, they increase their chances of contracting the disease and dying thus continuing the vicious cycle of poverty. The increase in the work load of caregivers affects their output in their various workplaces. The women who work in industries are unable to produce at optimum level because of increased absenteeism at work. This reduces the amount of income that they get since their working hours are greatly reduced. They may also be fired because they end up becoming a liability to the company because the cost of maintaining them as workers becomes too high for the company. This leads to a decrease in the amount of money that can be spent by the household on consuming. Furthermore with reduced income, there is reduced saving since all the money earned goes directly to consumption. The assets that people own end up being sold in order to acquire treatment for the sick. Even after death of the sufferers, there are still funeral expenses and hence further sale of the assets. The households are then left very poor with nothing to fall back on especially once the income earners in the household succumb to the disease. Since the savings have already been used up, there is no way that the households can recover their previous economic status and this increases the rate of poverty. In other words, there is an increase in the amount of poor people in the continent (http://www.avert.org). The households which have been affected by the disease end up depending on other households. They become a burden to them and cause an increase in the debts that these people have. These debts are even made worse by the fact that there are high chances of the income earners losing their employment. To avoid this, the older children end up becoming laborers to support their families. Â  This has changed the composition of workers to having more children than adults in the labor force. Since the children are unable to be as productive as the adults they are paid poorly. This pushes them further into poverty. Work cited AVERT. The Impact of HIV/AIDS on Africa. Retrieved on 29th November 2007 from http://www.avert.org/aidsimpact.htm Chaminuka P., Anim F., Debustus L. K. & Nqangweni S. impact of HIV&AIDS on Agriculture and Food Security. The Case of Limpopo Province in South Africa 2006 FANRPAN pg 2-8 Â  

The Hunters: Moonsong Chapter Ten

The pub where Elena and Damon ended up was lively and ful of people, but of course Damon made sure they didn't have to wait for a table. He lounged across one side of the booth, looking as arrogant and relaxed as a big gorgeous cat, and listened peaceably as Elena talked. Elena found herself gaily chatting away, fil ing him in on al the minutia of her campus life so far, from finding out that Professor Campbel knew her parents to the personalities of the other students she'd met in her classes. â€Å"The elevator was real y crowded, and slow, and my lab partner's back was against the buttons. Somehow she accidental y pushed the alarm button, and the alarm started going off.† Elena took a sip of her soda. â€Å"Suddenly, a voice came out of nowhere and asked, ‘Do you have an emergency?' And she said, ‘No, it was an accident,' and the voice said, ‘What? I can't hear you.' It went on like that, back and forth, until she started shouting ‘Accident! Accident!'† Damon stopped tracing patterns in the condensation on his glass with one finger and glanced up at her through his lashes, his lips twitching into a smile. â€Å"When the doors opened on the ground floor, there were four security men standing there with a medical kit,† Elena finished. â€Å"We didn't know what to do, so we just walked past them. When we got out of the building, we started to run. It was so embarrassing, but we couldn't stop laughing.† Damon let his slight smile expand into a grin – not his usual cool twist of the lips or his brief, bril iant, and enigmatic there-then-gone smile, but an honest-to-God cheek-puffing, eye-squinching grin. â€Å"I like you like this,† he said suddenly. â€Å"Like what?† Elena asked. â€Å"Relaxed, I suppose. Ever since we met, you've been in the middle of some crisis or another.† He raised his hand and brushed a curl away from her face, gently touching her cheek. Elena was vaguely aware of the waiter standing by the booth, waiting for them to look up, as she answered with just a touch of flirtation, â€Å"Oh, and I suppose you had nothing to do with that?† â€Å"I wouldn't say I am the one who's been most to blame, no,† Damon said cool y, his grin fading. He looked up, his eyes sharp and knowing. â€Å"Hel o, Stefan.† Elena froze in surprise. Not the waiter, then. Stefan. One look at him, and she winced, her stomach dropping. His face could have been carved from stone. He was looking at Damon's hand, stil stretched across the table toward Elena. â€Å"Hey,† she said tentatively. â€Å"How was your study group?† Stefan stared at her. â€Å"Elena, I've been looking everywhere for you. Why didn't you answer your phone?† Pul ing out her phone, Elena saw that there were several messages and texts from Stefan. â€Å"Oh, no, I'm so sorry,† she said. â€Å"I didn't hear it ring.† â€Å"We were supposed to meet,† Stefan said stiffly. â€Å"I came to your room and you were just gone. Elena, people have been disappearing al over campus.† He had been scared, afraid that something terrible had happened to her. His eyes were stil anxious. She started to reach out to comfort him. The fact that she'd lost the Power she'd had so briefly was hard for Stefan to accept, she knew. He thought her mortality made her fragile, and he was afraid he'd lose her. She should have thought it through, should have left him more of a message than a quick text saying she would return soon. Before she could touch him, Stefan's gaze turned to Damon. â€Å"What's going on?† he asked his brother, his voice ful of frustration. â€Å"Is this why you fol owed us to col ege? To zero in on Elena?† The look of hurt that crossed Damon's face was only a subtle shadow and was gone so quickly that Elena wasn't entirely sure she had actual y seen it. His features settled into an expression of lazy disdain, and Elena tensed. The peace between the brothers was so fragile – she knew that – and yet she had let Damon flirt with her. She'd been so stupid. â€Å"Someone should be keeping her safe, Stefan,† Damon drawled. â€Å"You're too busy playing human again, aren't you? Study groups.† He lifted an eyebrow scornful y. â€Å"I'm surprised you've even noticed that there's something going on around this campus. Would you rather have Elena alone and in danger than have her spending time with me?† Tense lines were forming around Stefan's mouth. â€Å"You're saying you don't have an ulterior motive here?† he asked. Damon waved a hand disparagingly. â€Å"You know what I feel for Elena. Elena knows what I feel for Elena. Even that sports-loving Mutt of yours knows how things are between us. But the problem isn't me, little brother – it's you and your jealousy. Your wanting to be an ‘ordinary human'† – Damon made quote marks with his fingers – â€Å"and stil carry on with Elena, who is hardly ordinary. You want to have your cake and eat it, too. I haven't done anything wrong. Elena wouldn't have come with me if she didn't want to.† Elena winced again. Was this the way it was always going to be? Was any minor misstep on her part going to set Damon and Stefan at each other's throats? â€Å"Stefan†¦ Damon,† she implored, but they ignored her. They were glaring at each other. Stefan stepped closer, flexing his fists, and Damon clenched his jaw, silently daring Stefan to make a move. For the first time, Elena saw a resemblance between them. â€Å"I can't do this,† she said. Her voice sounded smal and soft to her own ears, but both Salvatore brothers heard her and whipped their heads toward her with inhuman speed. â€Å"I can't do this,† she said again, louder and more firmly this time. â€Å"I can't be Katherine.† Damon scowled. â€Å"Katherine? Believe me, darling, nobody here wants you to be Katherine.† Stefan, his face softening, said, â€Å"Elena, sweetheart – † Elena interrupted him. â€Å"Listen to me.† She wiped her eyes. â€Å"I've been walking on eggshel s, trying to keep this – this thing between the three of us from tearing us apart. If anything good has come out of al the stuff that's happened, it's that you found each other, you started being brothers again. I can't – † She took a deep breath and tried to find a sensible matter-of-fact voice somewhere inside herself. â€Å"I think we should take a break,† she said flatly. â€Å"Stefan, I love you so much. You're my soul mate, you're it for me. You know that.† She looked up at him pleadingly, silently begging him to understand. Then her eyes moved past him to Damon, who was staring at her with a furrowed brow. â€Å"And Damon, you're part of me now. I †¦ feel for you.† She looked back and forth between them, her hands clutching each other. â€Å"I can't lose either of you. But I need to figure out who I am now, after everything that's happened, and I need to do it without worrying about destroying the relationship between you. And you need to figure out how you can be friends with each other, even if I'm in both of your lives.† Damon let out a skeptical noise, but Elena kept talking. â€Å"I'l understand† – she gulped – â€Å"if you can't wait for me. But I wil always, always love you. Both of you. In different ways. But for now, I just can't be with you. Either of you.† She was tearing up again, and her hands shook as she wiped her eyes. Damon leaned across the table, a smal twisted smile hovering on his lips. â€Å"Elena, did you just break up with both of us?† The tears dried up instantly. â€Å"Damon, I never dated you,† she said angrily. â€Å"I know,† he replied, and shrugged. â€Å"But I've definitely just been dumped.† He glanced at Stefan, then quickly away, his expression closed off. Stefan looked devastated. For a moment, his face was so bleak that it wasn't hard to believe he was more than five hundred years old. â€Å"Whatever you want, Elena,† he said. He started to reach for her, then pul ed his own hand back to his side. â€Å"No matter what, I wil always love you. My feelings aren't going to change. Take whatever time you need.† â€Å"Okay,† Elena said. She stood up shakily. She felt like she was going to be sick. Half of her wanted to pul Stefan to her, kiss him until that broken expression on his face went away. But Damon was watching her, his own face inscrutable, and touching either of them felt †¦ wrong. â€Å"I need to be by myself for a while,† she told them. At any other time, she knew, both of them would have objected to the idea of her walking the campus alone. They would have argued, fol owed her if she wouldn't walk with them – anything to keep her safely under their protection. Now, though, Stefan moved aside to let her out of the booth, his head bowed. Damon sat very stil and watched her go, his eyes hooded. Elena didn't look back at them as she crossed to the door of the pub. Her hands were shaking, and her eyes were brimming with tears once more. But she also felt as if she'd carried something very heavy for a while and had final y been able to put it down. This might be the best choice I've made in a long, long time, she thought. Dear Diary, Every time I remember the look on Stefan's face when I told him I needed space, my chest aches. It's like I can't breathe. I never wanted to hurt Stefan. Never. How could I? We're so close, so wrapped up in each other that he's like a piece of my soul – without him, I'm not complete. But†¦ I love Damon, too. He's my friend – my dark mirror image – the clever, plotting one who will do whatever it takes to get what he wants, but who has a kindness deep inside him that not everybody sees. I can't imagine living without Damon, either. Stefan wants to hold on to me so tightly. He cares for his brother – he does – and Damon cares for him, too, and having me between them is messing that up. All three of us have been held so closely together by the crises we've had to deal with recently – my death and rebirth, Klaus's attack, Damon's return from the edge of death, the phantom's attack – that every move we've made, every thought we've had, has been wrapped up with the other two. We can't go on like this. I know I've done the right thing. Without me between them, they can become brothers again. And then I can sort out the tangled threads of my relationships with both of them without having to worry that any move I make will snap the tenuous bond between us. It's the right decision. But still, I feel like I'm dying a slow death. How can I live for even a little while without Stefan? All I can do is try to be strong. If I just keep going, I'll get through this time. And in the end, everything will be wonderful. It has to be.

Business Reasearch Method Part 1

Business Research Methods Part I Sara Gonzalez QNT/561 March 19, 2013 Business Research Methods Part I A business organization must make tough decisions when faced with a dilemma. They could be rising costs, employee turnover, or in the case of British Petroleum (BP), safety. The recent explosion, deaths, and environmental impact of the deepwater Horizon oil drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico brought the question of drilling platform safety to the forefront of the news, continuing to do so over two years later. The disaster is one of the more recent events and â€Å"is the largest marine oil spill in history† (Cleveland, 2013).Research Question The dilemma that BP faces is keeping their employees safe while working in an industry known for its immediate danger. Are there warnings in the form of safety incidents that show likelihood that an event similar to the deepwater Horizon could happen again? Research Design A case study, â€Å"also referred to as the case historyâ €  (research text) is used to â€Å"obtain multiple perspectives of a single organization, situation, event, or process at a point in time or over a period of time†. (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 81) The research for this case study will include safety reports from many global oil companies. The purpose for researching many companies is because â€Å"When multiple units are chosen, it is because they offer similar results for predictable reasons† (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 181). It is expected that researching different oil companies will show a common factor in safety incidents leading to catastrophic events. Sample Design A non-probability sample design will be used for collecting data. However, to select effectively a sample design certain questions must be answered.They include, â€Å"What is the target population? What are the parameters of interest? What is the sampling frame? What is the appropriate sampling method? What size sample is needed† (Coop er & Schindler, 2011, Chapter 14, Steps in Sampling Design)? Target Population Our target population will consist of the employees at BP that can provide or have access to statistical data related to our research question. This includes workers who are exposed to the possibility of injury while performing regular day-to-day job duties. Parameters of InterestPopulation parameters will describe the â€Å"variables of interest in the population† (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, Chapter 14, Steps in Sampling Design). These include the sample mean, sample variance, and proportion of safety incidents to incidents resulting in injury. Sample statistics will serve as a â€Å"basis of our inferences of the population† (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, Chapter 14, Steps in Sampling Design). Sampling Frame The sampling frame will be a list of the subjects that make up the population of our sampling design. Characteristics can include age, work experience, and position within BP.Appropriate Sa mpling Method Our sampling design is limited to team member Scott Thrasher’s exposure to BP’s employee population. Again, a non-probability sampling design is the most appropriate method because it does not require the entire affected population at BP and only relies on the subjects who are readily available to him (Crossman, n. d. ). Sample Size At this point we have not established a standard for sample size. It is, however, agreed that a larger sample will provide the most accuracy, precision, and least chance for error (Cooper & Schindler, Chapter 14, Steps in Sampling Design, 2011).References Cleveland, C. J. (2013). Deepwater Horizon Disaster: Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Retrieved from http://www. eoearth. org/article/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill? topic=50364 Cooper, D. R. , & Schindler, P. S. (2011). Business Research Methods (11th ed. ). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database. Crossman, A. (n. d. ). Types Of Sampling Designs. About. com. Retrieved from http://sociology. about. com/od/Research/a/sampling-designs. htm

Police Officers' Problems in the 21st Century Research Paper

Police Officers' Problems in the 21st Century - Research Paper Example Issues like international terrorism have become burning issues for the Police. The old model of policing has changed and the way the role of Police was perceived has changed too. Access to information, the changes in the way Police responded to the new situation, the pre-emptive strikes, immigration etc are some of the key issues which have created significant challenges for the police and other authorities. 9/11 was one of the events which changed many things and virtually shifted the existing paradigm for the security and policing methods. It not only exposed the vulnerabilities of the existing security and policing procedures but also provided an opportunity to look into the better ways to manage the risk and threat posed to the society by the negative elements. It is therefore critical to understand that the challenges and opportunities available to Police are unique in nature and need to be viewed from the perspective of the changes which have taken place since 9/11. The policing model and the resulting changes therefore need to be discussed in order to fully understand the practical origins of the challenges faced by the police during 21st century. This paper will therefore make an attempt to discuss the challenges faced by Police during 21st century while discussing the difference between the challenges faced by the Police in past.The original duty or the mission of Police, as outlined by Sir Robert Peel, is to prevent crime and disorder. however, the overall sensitivity and the responsibilities of Policies have radically changed in the wake of current situation. The founder of modern model for Policing, Sir Robert Peel outlined the basic duty of police to ensure the safety of the general public and the preservation of peace within an in creasingly pluralist society The police’s role is now not just limited to the prevention of crime at the community level however, it now also entails a broader scope for activities which are considered as essential for controlling and preventing terrorist activities. The traditional community policing model was based on gaining and developing the trust within the public to achieve the overall aim of public safety. This model therefore required a closer link with the community to continuously look for information and intelligence which cannot help to prevent the crime but also allow the police to track down those who committed the crimes. (Bayley and Shearing) The shift towards intelligence led policing from the traditional investigative and reactive policing approach and than to the more pro-active military like policing model has been due to the changing nature of crime. As mentioned above that with the war on terrorism and the change in the way society face internal and ext ernal threats, the role of policing and the approaches of policing have changed. The above changes in the way society now perceives the role of Police and other law enforcement agencies therefore suggest that Police may face significant challenges during 21st Century. Counter-terrorism One of the most important challenges to be faced by the Police during 21st century is the counter- terrorism and anti-terrorism. The events of 9/11 have changed the way security was generally perceived by the societies. The increasing threat to the life and property of innocent citizens and the State itself therefore necessitated that the traditional role of Police should change. Earlier the significant challenge faced by the Police was to keep the criminals in check while ensuring that the general environment of peace and harmony exists in society. However, the anti-terrorism has forced police to face the significant challenge of meeting the new requirements. (Cooley) Terrorism has emerged as a pheno menon

Confrontation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Confrontation - Essay Example Be it the pure arts or humanities, criticism has always been there to point put any deviations from and contradictions to the ideologies and moralities, and the sets of rules, established by the actions of the people. This effort can be traced back to Aristotle, when he, in his Poetics, put forward the theory of literature that offered positive criticism to the literary works. Or the ideology of Karl Marx, called Marxism, for instance, objected to the sociopolitical conditions and offered an alternative method of approach that not only affected the social sciences, but even artists and literates grabbed on to the philosophies proposed by him. Flash forward to the recent exhibition, Art of Confrontation, and it is apparent that the struggle is far from over. In the humanities, the critical social theory, or the critical theory for short, has had an evolution, from two distinct origins and fields_ namely the literary theory, that proposes criticism purely in the arts and literature, and the social theory of criticism, that examines and analyses sociopolitical practices_ to the recent more overlapping critical social theory that combines the two fields and tries to provide a better and deeper understanding of society by incorporating all branches of humanities. Ultimately, the goal is to mold society according to the principles of Enlightenment, and to pursue it. Similarly, artists have for long seen it as their role as social scientists, and have produced work that has criticism and progression as its basis. Culture is by the people, for the people, and this medium, when tapped, can have amazing affects on the lives of the people. Sculptures, paintings and other form of art, even literature, can forever capture the thinking, feelings, and issues of the people of their time for future generations to study and learn from. As is said, it bears testimony. It stands as a reminder of the struggles of the people and their aspirations, and can send strong waves of renaissance and reform. Sometimes it has political shades to it and sometimes it provides a parallel medium to view issues, with a new light, leading, however, to the same goal_ Enlightenment. This form of art has come about to be known as critical art, and together, critical social theory and critical art, both high culture and mass culture, aim to propagate the acquisition of critical k nowledge to instill in individuals a sense of psychoanalysis and self-reflection so that society as a whole can emancipate itself from all forms of oppression, vice and domination. The underlying agenda of all activist movement has always been human rights, and the dignity and freedom that is associated with every individual. War,

Occupational Therapy for Dementia Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Occupational Therapy for Dementia - Case Study Example Over and above that, she has evidence of rheumatoid arthritis of both hands. She tripped and fell in the bathroom; this impairment of mobility may get accentuated with her rheumatic disease. She has been admitted to the hospital for observation and further evaluation. She has evident dementia. She has been admitted to the acute care, and an occupational therapy evaluation and management plan will be enacted from this history. The evaluation method used in occupational therapy for AD is based on observation and interview. The most important central theme is to observe clients' involvement in activities of daily living. This information must be corroborated with other information obtained from interviewing family members or caregivers. Literature indicates use of several performance based measures such as Assessment of Motor and Process Skills (AMPS), Cognitive Performance Test (CPT), Daily Activities Questionnaire, Disability Assessment for Dementia (DAD), Functional Performance Test (FPT), and Kitchen Task Assessment (KTA). These are important to assess the extent and

Learning Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Learning Methods - Essay Example Consequence of this is we sometimes tag learners who use less preferred methods as â€Å"bright’ while those who apply most like techniques as dumb. These kinds of perceptions can cause and create negative and positive twists that emphasize the conviction that a person is bright or dumb. A research on student Learning methods indicates that interesting lecture is not essentially good teaching. Even though students are entertained they might not have grasp anything. Better methods of learning are most probably been improved through an integration in the lecture of illustrative skill and other communicative approaches. Lectures are delivered by a teacher to great number f students. In most cases in person but sometimes conducted through a film or video broad cast. The advantages of applying lecturing as a learning method are; students acquire an overview of the topic quickly, continent of a subject can be controlled, allows for use of recognized, it is cost effective, it’s a common method of delivery, expert in the subject of study and students can be motivated by the lecturer. Drawbacks of lecturing are it doesn’t permit for various learning capabilities or speed of learners, it mostly viewed as boring by students, location and time are mostly directed by the lecturer. Student learning is also hard to gauge. Communication in a lecture is monologue. Audience is always passive. One needs a concise introduction and summary of the intended topic of discussion. Preparation requires time and content in order to be successful .Presentations pursue a similar approach to lecture however they are more likely to be conducted beyond formal education surroundings such as the workplace. Presentations are sometimes brief and often integrate high tech visual aids. Advantages of presentations are it can be done simultaneously. Before preparing for a presentation always keep in mind that the human brain has a typical

Carpetright plc (Audit and Assurance) Assignment

Carpetright plc (Audit and Assurance) - Assignment Example The external auditor’s judgment at this level will be very important which reduces the likelihood that the auditor will miss some necessary information in the company. Other essential things that the external auditor need to understand include; competitors, the structure of the company, the nature of the firm, industry in which it operates in, internal control system and financial reporting processes that are key to the company. This information could be derived from enquiry from relevant authorities, performing analytical procedures, important financial and non-financial information, and inspection and through observation of processes within the organization and documentation. The second step the auditor will take into account in carpet right plc. Is identifying and assessing potential risks that are in the company. This includes risk that affect individual transactions, disclosures, account balances and overall annual report. The auditor’s professional skills and judgment will be relevant on assessing how the potential risks have an impact on the measurement, accuracy, occurrence, completeness. Presentation and disclosure in the annual report of the company. The potential risk within the company will also determine how the auditor designs the audit program. The risk within a company is either significant or normal. Where significant is likely to occur while normal has a possibility of occurring. The third level will involve responding to the potential risk in the company. This requires the auditor to acquire substantial amount of evidence in the company. The auditor will be required to relate any risk identified on its impact in the financial report of the company, the individual transactions, disclosure and account balances. In concluding his report, the auditor will be required to provide a report whether he obtained all the information necessary deemed for the audit and whether the risk contains material misstatement in the company. The gearing

Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Culture - Essay Example The pregnant women are also prohibited from touching anything with glue to avoid the child being born with birthmarks (Community College, 2005). About foods, the Chinese also believe that if the expectant woman eats too much the baby will be too large making the labor harder. The mothers are advised to take coconut milk, so that the baby will have a good quality skin. On sex determination, the Chinese believe that if the belly is pointed the baby will be a boy and if rounded, it will be a girl. When the baby is finally born, it is the role of the father to give it the first bath. The placenta must be kept near the birth place so that in death, it is used as a sign of atonement and humility of the life on earth. The placenta can as well be used to make medicines cure various diseases (Simpson et al., 2008). Post-partum care involves taking of hot foods, including ginger, pig’s feet, and high protein meats, to rebuild the lost blood supply. Cold foods are believed to cause headache or arthritis in old age. To prevent complications, the mothers should avoid showering, washing hair, or exposing themselves to cold conditions. Before handling the baby, they are required to purify their hands using ginger. To increase milk production, the mothers are required to take papaya soup and fish. The first milk, colostrum, is considered dirty and should be discarded (Community College, 2005). In conclusion, Chinese people have a strong belief in their culture as long as the pregnancy is concerned. They observe the practices right from the pre-natal stage to post-partum care and the way the child is raised. Women are more inclined to the

Pennsylvania near Essay Example for Free

Pennsylvania near Essay Mining has been going on for a quite a long time in the whole world. It is worth noting that quarrying is an activity which is primarily aimed at extracting materials such as granite, limestone, slate and clay for various construction uses. On the same note, quarrying in Bangor has been done for more than a hundreds years due to the existence of karts topology. Bangor is located in eastern part of Pennsylvania near Pocono Mountains and West of Delaware Water Gap. It bears noting that Karts topology which has dominated this area is formed on limestone rocks by dissolution, includes underground streams, caves and beautiful sceneries (Langer, 2001). All these sceneries have been destroyed by quarrying impacts such as air pollution, noise pollution, and damage to biodiversity, land disturbance and heavy metal / toxins release. The neighborhood has for along time experienced a lot of difficulties in dealing with these impacts which are controllable though have far reaching effects.   Quarrying of Carbonate and other Rocks Since smaller and regular shaped stone products are required, large blocks of stone are extracted to provide a room for modifications. According to Langer (2001) a block of stone is cut from the bedrock mass by separating the block on all vertical sides then undercut the block or break the block away from the bedrock mass (p. 6). The major methods of quarrying are channel cutting and drilling and broaching. In channel cutting a multiple chisel-edged channeling machine cuts a rock into bars while in case of drilling and broaching method, a drilling machine drills many deep holes in a coordinated pattern (Langer, 2001). A broaching tool is then used to curve and chops the gaps between the drill holes which free the required block from the underlying bedrock mass (Langer, 2001). It is a requirement that the cutting be frequently sharpened for effectiveness Line drilling and blasting are the most modern methods used in quarrying in areas of Bangor. Line drilling involves the drilling holes in an overlapping manner and then sewing the stone using a wire saw or a chain saw (Langer, 2001). Blasting generally applies the use of explosives which break the stone blocks and produce small stones for crushing. This therefore implies that blasting cannot be applied in quarry when a certain shape of rock is desired (Langer, 2001). Quarrying affects the surrounding area and the immediate wildlife with numerous environmental damages. 3. 0 Air pollution All forms quarrying are capable of releasing dust which pollutes the air. Drilling and blasting are known to produce the most of the dust that affect the surrounding air (Langer, 2001). Clearing the forest or vegetation cover can also produce a considerable amount of dust. Another source of dust production is during the removal of soil cover for development of the quarry. Some of environmental factors that affect the concentration of dust include local microclimate condition, the dust particle size and the chemistry of the dust itself (Langer, 2001). Take for example a quarry like Capozzolo Slate Company which produces highly alkaline and reactive dusts from its mines and factory (Langer, 2001). If a coal mine is taken as a point of consideration, it produces a lot of heavy acidic dust. Air pollution from quarry dust becomes a nuisance over time since it deposits a heavy layer on plants and other surfaces it comes into contact with. It has far reaching effects on health of individuals by causing respiratory complications and eye problems. With respect to plants, dust coat causes the blockage of their internal structures which leads to and damaging of leaves and their cuticles (Langer, 2001). The long term survival of the plant is generally interfered with by the dust. 4. 0 Noise pollution Noise pollution develops from quarrying activities which start from the land clearance to the transportation of the final product of the quarry (Langer, 2001). The initial activities that produce noise pollution include those that are aimed at establishing access roads and rail connection, the quarry compound and also stone processing facility. The following procedure of exposing the stone mass to be extracted by removing all top soil using earth movers produces a lot of noise. In addition, the use of hydraulic excavators produces noise. Likewise, the drilling machines and blasting activities equally produce very loud noise (Langer, 2001). During the transportation of final product using heavy and powerful machines, truck traffic contributes to the production of noise (Langer, 2001). Additionally, the processing facility produces a lot of noise since crushing requires a lot of power. Consequently, the noise affects the surrounding wildlife and humans. 5. 0 Damage to biodiversity The major negative impacts of quarrying on the entire environment have been damage to biodiversity. Biodiversity basically refers to a wide range of living creatures, including mammals, fish, insects, invertebrates, reptiles, birds, plants, and micro-organisms (Langer, 2001). Quarrying destroys the ecosystem and all the species that are support. Moreover, the ecosystems are not only destroyed by the direct removal of the whole ecosystem but also indirectly by affecting and damaging related environment condition of the entire place (Langer, 2001). There are changes to underground water and surface water which cause many ecosystems to dry up while some experience flooding. Besides, the quality of water flowing downstream is compromised by the quarrying activities. On the same note, the water which comes into contact with the quarry by products is hard to purify since it cannot be filtered. Underground water is the most affected if quarrying activities interfere with the sinkholes by causing them to collapse. Ground-water pumping causes change of the flow of surface water. The large amounts of soil carried to the rivers cause result in a lot of silt deposits that pollute water systems thus killing animals. Quarrying in the Bangor zone has resulted increase of water runoff to some parts while other parts have been experiencing reduced water quality. Generally, quarrying causes the lowering of the ground water table by forcing it to go under the rock interface (Langer, 2001). The pumping of water out of the quarry may lead to high fluctuation of water ground water levels which may lead to drying up of the surrounding underground water systems. 6. 0 Land disturbance The land terrain is largely affected by the excavation activities and the damping of the waste soil. In to the bargain is the fact that the activities of making new rail line and roads cause a lot of soil movement which affects the natural terrain of the ground (Langer, 2001). Moreover, the land which is left after quarrying has stopped cannot be used economically through agricultural or commercial activities. 7. 0 Quarry Waste Just like many of the man-made mining activities, quarrying engages the production of considerable large amounts of wastes (Langer, 2001). A few quarries produce small amounts of permanent waste products with examples of sand and gravel quarries while others produce a large amount of waste material which includes clay and silt (Langer, 2001). The quarry wastes does note pose a big dander to the environment though it still have the potential for damage to the environment by contaminating any water that it comes into contact with. The quarry leaves permanent scars and massive footprints in landscapes (Langer, 2001). The abandoning of the quarry site leaves Lange trunks of landmass unsuitable for other uses. 8. 0 Heavy metal and toxins release Quarrying may release a lot of heavy metal and toxins to the environment that affect people’s health negatively and cause far reaching impacts on the surrounding ecosystem if it is conducted in areas that have harmful minerals (Langer, 2001). The release of harmful materials such as silica which is found in rocks enters the lungs , thus causing silicosis which is deadly as it can rip off the lungs. This may happen when little fragments silica rise as part of dust which is later breathed in through the nose. Another common effect of toxins is experienced when toxins are suspected to have been sipped in the water, which may lead an entire neighbourhood to go far away for search of clean and pure water. 9. 0 Recommendations The first measures to curb air pollution from quarrying activities should focus on the developing a forest cover that can contain the dust (Urich, 2002). Forest would help in increasing percolation and preventing soil erosion due to pumping of water out of the quarry site. Watering the roads that are used by the transporting track is also very useful (Urich, 2002). The quarry operations should be controlled in order to minimize the emission of the heavy dust by using modern technologies such as sawing instead of blasting stones. Land geo-morphological condition should be improved by an importation of other materials to fill the huge holes so as to return the natural ecology. Authorities in Bangor have made a mandatory that a reclamation guide line be included with each application for any quarrying permit (Langer, 2001). Contamination that occur through using abandoned quarry as dumping site can be voided by filling the quarry with soil that is free from any contamination. Moreover, water conservation measures can be applied by constructing stop dams and ponds that act as ground-water recharging sites (Langer, 2001). The surface run-off water is held back and all suspended solids are allowed to sink before entering the hydrological system. Controlling the soil erosion entry to streams by stabilization of exposed soil surface can be achieved by initiating vegetation cover growth on steep sides. Noise pollution can be reduced if the trucks traffic uses well designed road rail network. Better methods of stone extraction should be applied to avoid the production of noise pollution which people associate with quarrying activities. The damage to biodiversity can be lessened by a careful use of machines to avoid affecting a large portion of ecosystem. Land rehabilitation should follow immediately after the quarrying activities are completed (Langer, 2001). The quarry waste should be returned to the exposed hole before leaving the mining site. Finally, water that is drawn from the quarry should not be allowed into streams before its toxic levels being determined and ascertained that the levels are not dangerous. When all these are put into practice, then, the levels of pollution will greatly decrease. References Langer, W. H. (2001). potential Environmental Impacts Of Quarrying Stone in Karst- A leterature review. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from US Geological Survey web: http//geology. cr. usgs. go. gov/pub/ofrs/OFR-01-0484 Urich, P. B. (2002). Land Use in Karst Terrain: Review of Primary Activities on Temperate Karst Ecosystems. Science for conservation (198). Map of Bangor mine Source: http://wa. water. usgs. gov/projects/bangor/maps. htm Direct data from the USGS website with statistics and status of Bangor Limestone Bangor Limestone State Alabama Original map label Mb Province Interior Low Plateaus Province Name Bangor Limestone Age Mississippian Description Bangor Limestone Medium-gray bioclastic and oolitic limestone, containing interbeds of dusky-red and olive-green mudstone in the upper part. Map references Szabo, M. W. , Osborne, E. W. , Copeland, C. W. Jr. , Neathery; T. L. , 1988, Geologic Map of Alabama, Geological Survey of Alabama Special Map 220, scale 1:250,000. Primary rock type limestone Secondary rock type mudstone Unit references Szabo, M. W. , Osborne, E. W. , Copeland, C. W. Jr. , Neathery; T. L. , 1988, Geologic Map of Alabama, Geological Survey of Alabama Special Map 220, scale 1:250,000. Source: http://tin. er. usgs. gov/geology/state/sgmc-unit. php? unit=ALMb%3B2

Themes In The Novel The Tortilla Curtain English Literature Essay

Themes In The Novel The Tortilla Curtain English Literature Essay Boyles The Tortilla Curtain is a well woven literary piece that proves to be the best and the most successful of all his novels in history. Looking at his style of writing, he knits together illegal immigration, poverty, social class, racism, the American dream and xenophobia into a highly contrasted society that runs deep into the veins of the 21st Century America. Most publicists and scholars as well as critics have posed Boyles novel, The Tortilla Curtain as a timely provocative account that vividly highlights the immigration events in central California. Following this stance, Boyle had a purpose of writing this book and its success is dependent on the nature of understanding of his writing by the readers. The success of any literary piece is guaranteed if the writer achieves the unity of thought. This implies that the main reasons why the author wrote the books are communicated to the reader; the same understanding of the book is shared between the author and the reader. This co ntext seeks to analyze symbolism and the major themes that Boyle portrays in The Tortilla Curtain. The protagonists in this novel form the key focus in the analysis of the themes and symbolism used. The story entails two families that belong to the low class and the middle class in the society. The poor family consists of illegal Mexican immigrants (Candido and Amà ©rica) and the rich family (Kyra and Delaney) who are a real estate agent and columnist in an environmentalist magazine respectively. The setting of the novel portrays a man eat man society whereby the middle class care less about the low class. The story is woven from the two families that are intertwined from the time when Kyra has an accident which involves Candido, the poor man. The American Dream encompasses the belief that as long as one enters America and works hard, success is inevitable. This is a mere illusion as Candido and Amà ©rica remains the poorest in spite of their hard work. The middle class family works less yet they have a better life than those who work tirelessly. It is inevitable that everyone aspire good life and this is the reason why immigrants moved into the United States. Each of them had their share in making the American dream come true regardless of the hardships that they have to go through. The dreams of the two couples are varied but they both find nothing but illusions in their dreams at the end. It all matters where they are and what they want to achieve and since none achieves, then the American dream to them is just but an illusion. The aspect of class and racism will be discussed together in this analysis. The gated community where Kyra and his family live creates a gap between the haves and the have-nots. It does not only tear the middle and low class apart but also portrays racism between the whites and other ethnic minorities such as the Mexicans in the United States. At first Delaney, is a liberalist who believes in equal opportunity. This is evidenced in his quote that, everyone deserves a chance [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] immigrants are the lifeblood of this country (p.101). However, this is blurred by his concern on the environment over the starving immigrants (the poor) as he quotes,chewing up resources of the planet like locusts (82). The contempt and atrocity of racists is shown in Delaney when he hits Candido with his car and pays off a bloody $20 bill (13). Candido decides not to call the police because he knows that he is in the country illegally: On the other hand, Melaney hesitates to call the police beca use he only hit a Mexican forgetting that he had committed a crime. The$20 bill is an insult and serves as a bribe to blackmail the poor man to remain silent after the ordeal. In support of this, Jack who is an attorney is portrayed as a racist as he supports the stone wall construction and the gate. He fails in his duty to reinforce the law in the knowledge of a crime already committed. The attitude and fear they have on Mexicans is purely on the segregation of the Mexicans as shown in his quote, You want another crazy Mexican throwing himself under your wheels hoping for an insurance payoff? (102). This leads to the next theme; xenophobia. By definition, xenophobia is the feeling of hatred and fear that is experience by the citizens of a country when immigrants sets foot in their land. Though the immigrants are feared to be criminal, the actual perpetrators are inside the wall that was built. They are afraid of competition from the immigrants. They understand that the immigrants have the potential yet they will not give them equal opportunities as the citizens. Instead they exploit their vulnerability by paying low wages for work so that they can make huge profits. This portrays them as selfish. In addition, they are criminals who are perceived as honourable members of the society. They thus use the power gained to discriminate against the ethnic minorities. Work should be a move to improve the living standards of the employees and therefore people of true spirit care about their employees welfare. Immigration as a theme is portrayed as illegal in the timeline of this novel. This can be coupled by the theme of poverty as it comes out best together. Further in this novel, the coyote symbolizes the immigration. The exploitation of labor for the poor as shown by the low wages paid to Candido is one instance of immigration and poverty. Though they knew that they deserved better, they had no option but to work and earn the meagre wages for survival. They couldnt talk about it for the fear of the repercussions from the illegal immigration. Poverty is again witnessed when Socorro, Candidos daughter is born and is suspected to be blind but they cannot face the problems due to poverty. In another instance of poverty, Candido robbing in the city leads to feeding from trash cans to avoid starving. This shows how the society doesnt care for the poor. This is the lowest form of poverty that one can live in; its far beyond the international poverty line that projects that the poorest homeste ad spends at least $1 a day. Again, it shows the realities of life in the modern era where civilized is highly upheld. What is civilization when the country is symbolized by coyotes? This leads us to the use of symbolism in this novel. In the analysis of symbolism, coyote is the most prominent and a motif that recurs throughout the novel while at the same times the strongest representation of the immigrants in this analysis. Immigration is portrayed as a monster in America in the case where the Mossbachers two dogs are feasted by the wild animal. Though a fence is built such as that at the US-Mexican border, they still penetrate (Boyle 39). Delaneys column coyote experiences are brought in this view as he quotes, One coyote, who makes his living on the fringes of my community [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] has learned to simply chew his way through the plastic irrigation pipes whenever he wants to drink.(212): This symbolizes Candido who steals water and other basic requirements for his family just like the coyote does to the dogs. In addition, Delaney quotes that, The coyote is not to blame-he is only trying to survive, to make a living, to take advantage of the opportunities available to him (215). This also applies to Candid os way of life: He takes up any opportunity that comes to his way such as the case of the Turkey offer and he doesnt care what the society thinks of him. He is forced to do so for survival and he again resembles the coyote. Think of this: no house and camps in a canyon, digs in garbage in search for food, intrudes on other peoples property for survival; is this not exactly the way a coyote lives? Candido, an illegal immigrant, is not welcome in the city just like the hunted coyote. In addition, Josà © Navidad backs on the symbolic coyote; he is portrayed as the bad guy. He rapes women and survives by intruding on other peoples property. It is more interesting when Candido feels that his space is intruded by Josà © Navidad as quoted, Now he had to worry about this stinking crack-toothed pendejo nosing around down in the canyon, as if he did not have enough problems already (90). The nature of house where one lived defines the class and the achievement of the American dream. The low class live in simple houses that were self made and others were homeless while the middle class lived in fenced houses. Following this, the wall as a symbol of separation between the two classes was constructed. From a general stance, a wall serves as a physical barrier between two parties. In reference to the case at hand, the wall is used metaphorically to keep the two cultures apart. Though the fences have been put in place and failed to serve the purpose it is inevitable that the illegal immigrants will continue to find their way through the US-Mexican border into America in search of success and the achievement of the American dream. Those who live inside the wall that is, the middle class and those who live outside the wall, the low class are separated by the wall. The wall also symbolizes the great fear that the Americans had for the Mexicans. The wall is a symbolic device for creating gaps between the haves and the have-nots but this is not the solution to the problems which they perceive to emanate from the Mexicans. As the poor struggles with their lives outside the wall, the haves are also affected as well though they wont admit it. This is demonstrated when Candido roasts the bird pack given to him by a Turkish customer after a promotion thanks giving (an act of kindness from the customer), it causes fire which extends to the gate community of the haves. In conclusion, Boyle portrays Americas life a struggle and survival for the fittest. The smartest in adopting and coping with the changing face of America survives. Symbolism comes out as the main stylistic device that was used by the author to complete this well thought literary piece. Through the use of imagery and excellent choice of diction, he voices out the realities of immigrants without sounding rude and offensive. The themes discussed in this novel fit in the contemporary literature: The modern United States is still fighting illegal immigration, poverty, social class and racism. Its current economy is at threat as more immigrants gets their way in America and floods the job market and exert pressure on the natural resources (Stringer x). The American dream and xenophobia are still eminent given the adverse effects of immigration on the economy, the environment and social amenities. Boyle book exhibits powerful mastery of literary techniques which leaves the reader pondering on the immigrants situation in the United States more so for those who have future prospects of living and working there. He shows that America is tattered with poverty in the midst of the vast development, hence the economic disparities that are the norm in the global economic arena. Work Cited Boyle, Coraghessan. The Tortilla Curtain. London: Penguin Books, 1996. Stringer, Jenny. The Oxford companion to twentieth-century literature in English. United States: Oxford University Press, 1996.